124 research outputs found

    How Diverse is Entrepreneurship? Observations on the social heterogeneity of self-employment in Germany

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    The discussion on entrepreneurship often treats entrepreneurs as agents of ideas of economic change and growth. Entrepreneurs are considered to serve as potential multipliers delivering individual and social wealth and prosperity. In that context entrepreneurship has been treated as a rather homogenous category, internal differences were not in the focus of academic talk. In public policy discourse entrepreneurship and the labour market category of self-employment are often used interchangeably. Images and interpretation of self-employment are mostly based on comparison of self-employment with other categories of wage or salary dependent labour market groups. This way self-employed people prove to become an averaged one-type figure. The proposed paper wants to highlight the other side of economic and social reality: the heterogeneity of self-employment. Referring to empirical data for the case of Germany the argumentation intends to illuminate different levels of social and economic integration of self-employed people. Working parameters and firm sizes, economic sectors of activity, income patterns, working hours and biographies have diversified and became increasingly heterogeneous so that further discussion is ultimately provoked: Which entrepreneurship are we talking about when talking entrepreneurship? Where are links between different fractions of the category of self-employment compared to each other and to other socio-economic groups? The contribution must be regarded as a theoretical and empirical task to connect entrepreneurship with debate on innovation, culture and finance.self-employment; heterogeneity; entrepreneurship

    The social embeddedness of consumption - towards the relationship of income and expenditures over time in Germany

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    Expenditures and their patterns over time are expressions of the standard of living of individuals, households, and the society they live in. Nevertheless social and economic analysis focused rather on the analysis of production than on consumption, and income was widely used as a main indicator of (economic) well-being. On the other hand, expenditure regards as a measure to describe and estimate the participation of households in the wealth of nation. Therefore, there is an interest in the relationship of income and spending money. It is often considered that expenditure and income are the two sides of the same coin called 'social inequality'. This assumption implies a strong relationship between these two measures of welfare inequality. Due to the lack of longitudinal data in Germany, we used repeated crosssectional data (RCS) in our empirical analysis which is based on the West German Income and Expenditure Survey (IES) in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988 and 1993. The IES's are representative cross-sections of all West German households, collected by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany. Descriptive methods are used to separate age, cohort, and period effects just as the RCS enables us to use a linear model to shed some light on this issue. The analysis indicates that the relationship between income and expenditure is given but weak: The higher the income the looser the concrete expenditure structure in terms of real consumption is. All in all, the social organisation of consumption is a research object in itself to obtain information about the living standard of individuals and households. -- Ausgaben und deren VerĂ€nderung im Zeitablauf sind Ausdruck des Lebensstandards von Individuen, Haushalten und der Gesellschaft, in der diese leben. Dennoch bezog sich die soziologische und ökonomische Analyse eher auf die GĂŒterproduktion denn auf deren Konsum, und Einkommen wurde als ein Maß zur Beschreibung der (ökonomischen) Wohlfahrt verwendet. Andererseits dienen die Ausgaben als Maß zur Beschreibung und AbschĂ€tzung der Partizipation von Haushalten an der Wohlfahrt einer Gesellschaft. Und darin liegt das Interesse am VerhĂ€ltnis zwischen Einkommen und Ausgaben begrĂŒndet. Es wird hĂ€ufig unterstellt, daß Ausgaben und Einkommen zwei Seiten derselben Medaille darstellen, die als 'soziale Ungleichheit' bezeichnet wird. Diese Annahme impliziert eine Beziehung zwischen den beiden Maßzahlen zur Beschreibung der Wohlfahrtsungleichheit. Die empirische Analyse basiert auf den Einkommens- und Verbrauchsstichproben (EVS) der Jahre 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988 und 1993 fĂŒr Westdeutschland. Bei den EVS handelt es sich um reprĂ€sentative Querschnitterhebungen, die vom Statistischen Bundesamt durchgefĂŒhrt werden. Auf der Grundlage dieser Daten wird versucht, Aussagen ĂŒber die Beziehung zwischen Einkommen und Ausgaben zu treffen. Es werden vornehmlich Methoden der deskriptiven Statistik verwendet, um Alters-, Kohorten- und Periodeneffekte isolieren zu können. Weiterhin ermöglicht die Verbindung der einzelnen EVS die Verwendung induktiver statistischer Methoden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß Einkommen und Ausgaben nicht in einem festen VerhĂ€ltnis zueinander stehen. Je höher die Einkommen sind, desto offener ist der Zusammenhang zur konkreten Ausgabenstruktur. Insgesamt betrachtet bedeutet dies, daß die soziale Organisation des Konsums fĂŒr sich genommen als Forschungsgegenstand zur Erlangung von Informationen ĂŒber den Lebensstandard von Individuen und Haushalten mit berĂŒcksichtigt werden muß.

    Renaissance of Entrepreneurship? Some remarks and empirical evidence for Germany

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    The paper deals with margins of entrepreneurship where small business owners are almost working on their own having no or just a few employees and where one can find also people working with low returns and having firms without stability or prosperous dynamics. However, even the area of entrepreneurship at the margins seems to be a wide field. It highlights not only the broad margins of entrepreneurship but also the fluent boarders between entrepreneurship and the informal sector on the one side and the system of the labour market on the other. New firms – even those which are very successful at a later point of career – are almost created in an experimental period of testing market and product ideas in which business founders are still employed or registered as unemployed people. The practical starting-point of an entrepreneurial existence falls into a fluent continuum of different activities being closely connected to spheres of dependent work as employees or periods of seeking a new job during unemployment. With growing solo self-employment a new social phenomenon in the structure of the labour market and the division of occupations has emerged in which different social developments are overlapping each other. The question for the landscape of solo self-employment and related driving forces of their emergence is of crucial research interest: Must they be regarded primarily as a result of pushes by labour market deficiencies or are they a response to new life-styles and working demands which act as pulling factors into self-employment? In other words, does solo self-employment serve as a valve of a pressing labour market or must it be regarded more positively as a new option of the classic division of labour by which an increasing number of people find new self-reliant and also stable jobs? The idea of the paper is to discuss this particular issue of margins of entrepreneurship not only within the conventional scope of entrepreneurship discussion but within an integrated framework which combines entrepreneurship analysis with labour market research and studies on social stratification and social mobility. The paper will not come about with definite last answers but hopes to contribute to that debate by presenting better information.Self-employment; entrepreneurship; labour market; empirical analysis

    Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Spatial Disparities: Divisions and Changes of Self-employment and Firms

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    Topic of the paper is the development of professional self-employment during the last decades in Germany. The discussion is divided into a theoretical and an empirical section. The first theoretical part deals with the term entrepreneurship and asks for its overlapping with categories of self-employment and of innovation. Although these terms cover only partially the same meanings, political discourse often equals the slogan to foster entrepreneurship and innovation with an increase of self-employment. The second section of the paper is concerned with concrete investigation of development patterns of occupational self-employment since the beginning of the 1990th until 2006 based upon microcensus data for Germany. First of all, the overall increase of self-employment becomes visible but the principle lines hide further fundamental structural changes. A majority of those „new“ self-employed people belongs into the category of solo-self-employment and micro firms without further employees. An equation of entrepreneurship with innovation activities and in-creasing self-employment ratios falls too short and is problematic with respect to discussion on economic policy needs to increase growth. Differentiation for regions, economic sectors and gender offers a picture which is contradictory and which does not correspond with some causal explanations as found conventionally.self-employment, entrepreneurship, professionals, development, Germany

    The Social Embeddedness of Consumption: Towards the Relationship of Income and Expenditures over Time in Germany

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    Expenditures and their patterns over time are expressions of the standard of living of individuals, households, and the society they live in. Nevertheless social and economic analysis focused rather on the analysis of production than on consumption, and income was widely used as a main indicator of (economic) well-being. On the other hand, expenditure regards as a measure to describe and estimate the participation of households in the wealth of nation. Therefore, there is an interest in the relationship of income and spending money. It is often considered that expenditure and income are the two sides of the same coin called “social inequality”. This assumption implies a strong relationship between these two measures of welfare inequality. Due to the lack of longitudinal data in Germany, we used repeated crosssectional data (RCS) in our empirical analysis which is based on the West German Income and Expenditure Survey (IES) in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988 and 1993. The IES’s are representative cross-sections of all West German households, collected by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany. Descriptive methods are used to separate age, cohort, and period effects just as the RCS enables us to use a linear model to shed some light on this issue. The analysis indicates that the relationship between income and expenditure is given but weak: The higher the income the looser the concrete expenditure structure in terms of real consumption is. All in all, the social organisation of consumption is a research object in itself to obtain information about the living standard of individuals and households.

    Senior Entrepreneurship. Self-employment by Older People – an Uncharted Territory

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    An ageing population means a growing number of healthy older people with human capital, financial resources, and time available to contribute to economic activities. However, the economic potential of older people remains mostly underused, which leads to the question, how to make best use of the underused. One way would be fostering senior entrepreneurship. The paper discusses which factors may positively influence or hinder the self-employment of older people. Overall, attention will be drawn to the relevance of older people in the field of business and entrepreneurial economics. From an economic point of view, it seems necessary not only to focus on young people but also to take into account the large and still growing economic potential of the elderly. There seems to be a treasure in waiting

    SparfĂ€higkeit und Vorsorge gegenĂŒber sozialen Risiken bei SelbstĂ€ndigen: Einige Informationen auf der Basis der Einkommens- und Verbrauchsstichprobe 1998

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    Das Ziel des Beitrages liegt in der Analyse der SparfĂ€higkeit und spezifischer Vorsorgeformen von Personen bzw. Haushalten, deren Einkommen ĂŒberwiegend aus einer selbstĂ€ndigen ErwerbstĂ€tigkeit erzielt wird. Zur Charakterisierung der SparfĂ€higkeit werden Informationen ĂŒber die EinkĂŒnfte und die VermögensbestĂ€nde von Haushalten mit einer selbstĂ€ndig erwerbstĂ€tigen Bezugsperson ermittelt, bei deren Beurteilung auch der Haushaltstyp bzw. die spezifische Haushaltssituation berĂŒcksichtigt wird. Dies geschieht auf der Grundlage eines scientific use files der Einkommens? und Verbrauchsstichprobe des Statistischen Bundesamtes aus dem Jahre 1998. Als Resultat zeigt sich auf der Grundlage der Querschnittanalyse cum grano salis, daß sich die SparfĂ€higkeit der SelbstĂ€ndigen im Durchschnitt nicht wesentlich von der der abhĂ€ngig BeschĂ€ftigten unterscheidet. Weiterhin wird deutlich, daß die EVS '98 nur sehr eingeschrĂ€nkt zur Analyse der Risikovorsorge privater Haushalte gegenĂŒber sozialen Risiken geeignet ist. Es können dennoch Indizien ermittelt werden, die darauf hinweisen, daß die Gruppe der SelbstĂ€ndigen sehr heterogen im Hinblick auf die Vorsorge gegenĂŒber einem Einkommensausfall und / oder einer zusĂ€tzlichen Belastung durch den Eintritt eines allgemeinen Lebensrisikos ist. So sind annĂ€hernd alle Personen in einer Kranken? und damit auch in der Pflegeversicherung abgesichert und rund 84,7 vH der SelbstĂ€ndigen verfĂŒgen ĂŒber eine Altersvorsorge im engeren Sinne. Zu bedenken ist ferner, daß die Möglichkeit einer Absicherung durch eine Institution der Sozialversicherung oder durch ein privatwirtschaftliches Unternehmen gegenĂŒber einer Phase des Einkommensausfalls infolge fehlender AuftrĂ€ge oder gegenĂŒber einer Insolvenz nicht existiert. -- The aim of the paper is to analyse the ability of persons or households, with earnings mainly out of independent work, to save money and to look on the specific kind of provisions they have made against so called social risks. To characterise the ability to save, the income and wealth distribution of households with a self?employed head are determined. For this and for judging the type of the household or the household situation has to be taken into account. This is to be done on the basis of a scientific use file of the Income and Expenditure Survey (IES '98) of the Federal Statistical Office Germany of the year 1998. The result on the basis of the cross section analysis is cum grano salis, that on average the ability of households with a self?employed head to save money does not much differs from that of the households with employed heads. Furthermore it becomes obvious, that the IES 98 is only partly suitable to analyse the provisions of private households against social risks. Nevertheless it is possible to gain some evidence on the heterogeneity of the group of self? employed households concerning the provisions against a loss of income and / or an additional financial burden in consequence of the occurrence of a general risk of life. So nearly all persons do have a health insurance, a long term care insurance, and around 84.7 % have an old age security. Further it has to be taken into account, that the possibility of provision against a phase without income due to the lack of orders or against insolvency does not exist.

    Verkannte Gefahr: erodierende Finanzierungsbasis der sozialen Sicherung

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    Neue Erwerbsformen spielen eine wachsende Rolle auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. Wie hat sich die sozialversicherungspïŹ‚ichtige BeschĂ€ftigung entwickelt? Welche Bedeutung kommt der selbstĂ€ndigen ErwerbstĂ€tigkeit zu? Wie wirkt sich die Änderung der ErwerbstĂ€tigenstruktur auf die einzelnen Bereiche der sozialen Sicherung aus? Welche Probleme werden sich zukĂŒnftig durch diese Entwicklung ergeben? --

    Kumulation von individuellen Arbeitslosigkeitsphasen oder Mehrfacharbeitslosigkeit : ein quantitativ bedeutsames Problem?

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    "Die LĂ€ngsschnittuntersuchung befaßt sich mit dem Problembereich der wiederholt auftretenden Arbeitslosigkeit bei den gleichen Personen, der Mehrfacharbeitslosigkeit. Sie stellt den Versuch dar, deren Ausmaß und Entwicklung ĂŒber den Zeitraum von 1950 bis 1980 zu beschreiben sowie Anhaltspunkte ĂŒber die Art der AbhĂ€ngigkeit zwischen der Mehrfacharbeitslosigkeit und der jeweiligen Dauer einer Arbeitslosigkeitsphase zu gewinnen. Bei dem verwendeten prozeßproduzierten Datenmaterial der Deutschen RentenversicherungstrĂ€ger handelt es sich um eine reprĂ€sentative Stichprobe aus Versichertenkonten von Personen, die 1981 in Rente gegangen sind - eine sog. Rentenzugangsstichprobe. Die Auswertungen wurden getrennt nach Frauen und MĂ€nnern sowie nach dem Geburtsjahr - und zwar fĂŒr die Kohorten der 1916, 1918, 1919 und 1921 Geborenen - durchgefĂŒhrt. Es zeigt sich in den 31 Jahren: - Eine relativ kleine Gruppe - je nach Kohorte zwischen 5 vH und 20 vH - war in diesem Zeitraum arbeitslos geworden. Bei diesen Personen kam es dann aber zu einem relativ hohen Ausmaß an wiederholter Arbeitslosigkeit. So war z. B. bei den 1918 geborenen MĂ€nnern fast jeder dritte mehr als fĂŒnfmal arbeitslos. - In Zeiten eines konjunkturellen Aufschwungs der Wirtschaft wurden ĂŒberwiegend Personen arbeitslos, die schon zuvor in ihrem Erwerbsleben FĂ€lle von Arbeitslosigkeit aufwiesen, wĂ€hrend der Anteil der Personen, die erstmals von Arbeitslosigkeit betroffen wurden, in Zeiten eines Abschwungs zunahm. - Die ÜberprĂŒfung der Hypthese der UnabhĂ€ngigkeit zwischen der Mehrfacharbeitslosigkeit und der Dauer einer Arbeitslosigkeitsphase durch einen Chi-Quadrat-Test fĂŒhrte zu deren Ablehnung. Ein enger linearer Zusammenhang der beiden Merkmale konnte aber nicht aufgezeigt werden. Zusammenfassend lĂ€ĂŸt sich sagen, daß aufgrund der hier gewonnenen Ergebnisse der Mehrfacharbeitslosigkeit eine eigenstĂ€ndige Bedeutung bei der Analyse der Arbeitslosigkeit sowohl in der Theorie als auch in der Empire zukommen sollte." (Autorenreferat)Mehrfacharbeitslosigkeit, Geschlechterverteilung, Arbeitslosigkeit - Dauer, Arbeitslosigkeit - Risiko

    Continuity or discontinuity in the decision of the application of income of private households?

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    Der Autor untersucht anhand von Daten des Verbraucherpanels der Gesellschaft fĂŒr Marktforschung (GfK) die Risikoorientierung beim Kauf alltĂ€glicher Waren. Er analysiert die unterschiedlichen Kaufentscheidungen, die der Verbraucher in AbhĂ€ngigkeit des verfĂŒgbaren Einkommens trifft, mit Hilfe von nicht- und semi-parametrischen Verfahren und zeigt die KontinuitĂ€t bzw. DiskontinuitĂ€t des Kaufverhaltens sowie dessen sozioökonomische Einbettung auf. Der dynamische Charakter des Kaufverhaltens und der Risikoentscheidungen von Privathaushalten lĂ€sst sich vor allem im Rahmen einer Verlaufsdaten- oder Ereignisanalyse verdeutlichen, wie der Autor in seinem Beitrag nĂ€her zeigt. (ICI
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